- Hydrogen Safety -

AHA Hydrogen Safety Handbook

A lot of information is available on hydrogen safety. Unfortunately, it is scattered all over the planet. This site represents hundreds of hours of collecting all this information into one place with the objective of minimizing needless injury, loss of life and property damage. Note Well – Hydrogen used in new ways will have hazards as yet unknown. Always respect hydrogen. Use common sense.

SAFETY FIRST

Disclaimer

Authors of this Hydrogen Safety Handbook are not hydrogen safety professionals. The purpose of this document is to guide you TO current, comprehensive hydrogen safety information. There are still many unknowns regarding hydrogen safety. The American Hydrogen Association assumes no legal liability for injuries, loss of life or property damage arising from using or misusing any information in this Handbook. You are fully responsible for your choices made and actions taken. If in doubt, ask someone with experience or the product manufacturer for help before blinding yourself, burning down the neighborhood or committing manslaughter.

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Properties of Hydrogen

Basic Hydrogen Properties Chart. h2tools.org

Technical Reference for Hydrogen Compatibility of Materials. SAND2012-7321. 2012, 292 pgs.

Compressed hydrogen MSDS. Praxair. 2022, 10 pgs.

Fundamentals of Hydrogen Embrittlement. Michihiko Nagumo. 2016, 241 pgs.

Gaseous Hydrogen Embrittlement of Materials in Energy Technologies Volume 1: The problem, its characterization and effects on particular alloy classes. Gangloff & Somerday, edit. 2012, 858 pgs.

Basic Considerations for the Safety of Hydrogen Systems. ISO/TR 15916:2015. 62 pgs.

Steels for Hydrogen Service at Elevated Temperatures and Pressures in Petrochemical Refineries and Petrochemical Plants. API RP 941. 2016, 66 pgs.

Hindenburg Legacy

At 7:25 PM on Thursday, May 6, 1937, a news cameraman recorded the German dirigible Hindenburg burning when it attempted docking at the Naval Air Station in Lakehurst, New Jersey. The cotton covering, doped with aluminum powder, ignited and set the hydrogen cells on fire. Within a minute the naked aluminum frame crashed to the ground. 35 out of 97 passengers and crew and 1 ground worker died, primarily from burns. In spite of proof that hydrogen did not cause the fire nor did it explode, the image of immolation by hydrogen is unfortunately indelibly burned into the public consciousness. An episode of the Simpsons TV show has an exploding blimp.

There will always be unknown hazards with new technology whether it’s steam boilers or autonomous vehicles. How long did it take for safety glasses or seat belts to be invented? We are comfortable bringing natural gas into our homes to heat water. Every day we are inches away from electrocution. We fill our own cars and trucks with gasoline. We barbecue with propane and use high pressure welding and SCUBA cylinders. What is important is to learn from mistakes and not repeat them.

In 1921, The British 695 foot-long armed patrol hydrogen airship R38, sold to the U.S. Navy, experienced structural failure during flight test maneuvers in England. The resulting explosion broke windows over a wide area. 44 died out of a crew of 49.

In 1922, the rudder on the U.S. Army Italian-built Roma failed and the airship hit power lines and burned. 34 died out of a crew of 45.

In 1923, the French Naval airship Diximude, a German WWI reparation, burned in a thunderstorm off the coast of Sicily. All 52 on board perished.

In 1930, the British airship R101 on a maiden voyage to India dove into the ground in France and burned. 48 out of 54 died.

Dr, Addison Bain, a retired NASA hydrogen engineer, did superlative detective work investigating the hydrogen accident. He interviewed survivors, witnesses and airship designers in Germany and the U.S., collected photographs and did laboratory analyses of original materials. Read about Dr. Bain’s rigorous research and details of the Hindenburg’s demise in his book, Hindenburg: Exploring the Truth.

Hydrogen Safety Training

Center for Hydrogen Safety Hydrogen Safety Courses. AIChE Academy.

Safety Training for the Hydrogen Highway. SAE 2006-01-0328. 2006, 9 pgs.

Hydrogen Safety Technologies. Ulster University (Ireland) online short courses.

Hydrogen Safety Training, Levels 1 – 4. WHA International, Las Cruces, NM.

Hydrogen Safety Training Materials. CHS. 204 pgs.

Hydrogen Technologies Safety Guide. NREL. 2015, 73 pgs.

Natural Gas Courses. Natural Gas Vehicle Institute, Las Vegas, NV. Cylinder inspections. code officials, station O&M, drivers, 1st responders.

Hydrogen Gas Safety Self Study. Los Alamos National Laboratory. 2000, 23 pgs.

OSHA Fuel Cell Safety online certification course. 2 hours, $39.95

Joint European Summer School on Fuel Cells, Electrolyzers and Battery Technologies. September 2023. Athens, Greece. EU 2100.

Best practices for defueling, decommissioning, and disposal of compressed natural gas (CNG) vehicle fuel containers. CSA 3-hour online training, includes LNG.

TUV online hydrogen safety courses for the transportation industry.

1st Responders

Hydrogen has some unusual properties, like being lighter than air, odorless and an almost invisible flame, that may present unexpected hazards to First Responders.

Introduction to Hydrogen Safety for First Responders. One hour of basic information for fire, law enforcement and emergency medical personnel. Center for Hydrogen Safety. Free with AIChE guest account.

First Responder Micro Training Learning Plan. Four 25 minute videos on Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles for Incident Response, Fire Response and Extraction of a Fuel Cell Vehicle, Transport of Hydrogen Fuel and Hydrogen Fueling Station Incident Response. Center for Hydrogen Safety. Free with AIChE guest account.

HYRESPONSE – European Hydrogen Safety Training Platform (EHSTP) for First Responders.

Fire Fighter Safety and Emergency Response for Solar Power Systems. (2013) Solar systems are a likely part of hydrogen installations.

Safety Training for First Responders. PNNL-SA-72138. 2010, 16 pgs.

Gaseous Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Vehicle First and Second Responder Recommended Practice. SAE J2990/1,  2016, 33 pgs.

Emergency Response Guide: Fuel Cell Vehicles and Hydrogen Fueling Stations. CFCP. (2004) dhh23

Emergency Response Guidebook. PHMSA, Hazardous material transportation incidents. 2020, 396 pgs.

Hydrogen Vehicle Firefighter Safety Training. Air Liquide. 14 minutes.

First Responder Training Resources and Future Direction. PNNL-SA-104297.

Emergency Response Guidebook. PHMSA, Hazardous materials in transportation incidents. 2020, 396 pgs.

First Responder Training: Supporting commercialization of hydrogen and fuel cell technologies. IJHE. 2017, 6 pgs.

Appendix A – Statement of Requirement – Hydrogen Training for Australian Emergency Services. AFAC. 2021, 70 pgs.

Pipeline Emergencies Training. National Association of State Fire Marshals.

Toyota Mirai Emergency Response Quick Reference. (2015)

Honda Clarity Fuel Cell Emergency Response Guide. (2018)

Hyundai Tucson Fuel Cell Emergency Response Guide. (2014)

Hyundai NEXO Fuel Cell Emergency Response Guide. (2019), 36 pgs.

[GM] Chevrolet Equinox Fuel Cell Emergency Response Guide. 2007, 25 pgs.

Guidelines for rescue personnel – Cars, vans and off-road vehicles. Mercedes Benz. 2021, 162 pgs

Mercedes Benz Hydrogen drive Rescue sheet finder.

Road Vehicles- Information for first and second responders – Part 3. ISO 17840-3:2019

–NCAP Rescue Sheet smartphone app for European vehicles.

–NCAP Rescue Sheet smartphone app for Australian vehicles.

Hydrogen Codes and Standards

Standard – In the interest of public safety, environmental protection and technician competency, volunteer experts in a field periodically write recommendations to build, install, operate, maintain and certify equipment and systems.

Code – When a government authority adopts a standard, it becomes a legally enforceable rule.

Regulation – Rule made by an authority.

Hydrogen/Fuel Cell Codes & Standards. h2tools.org list of 400 standards.

-Mobile Hydrogen-

-Vehicles-

Fuel cell electric vehicles – Safety requirements. (Chinese Standard) GB/T 24549-2020.

China hydrogen standards. IHFCA.

Fuel system components for compressed hydrogen gas powered vehicles. ANSI HGV 3.1. 2015.

Recommended Practice for General Fuel Cell Vehicle Safety. SAE J2578_202301. 2023. 71 pgs.

Standard for Fuel Systems in Fuel Cell and Other Hydrogen Vehicles. SAE J2579. 2013, 102 pgs.

Compressed Hydrogen Surface Vehicle Fueling Connection Devices. SAE J 2600. 2015, 39 pgs. [Work in Progress}

Liquid hydrogen — Land vehicle fueling system interface. ISO 13984. 1999, 13 pgs.

Fuel cell road vehicles — Safety specifications — Protection against hydrogen hazards for vehicles fueled with compressed hydrogen. ISO 23273. 2019, 6 pgs.

Gaseous hydrogen land vehicle refueling connection devices. ISO 17268, 2020, 45 pgs. [SAE J2600]

Fuel cell technologies. Fuel cell power systems for propulsion other than road vehicles and auxiliary power units (APU). Safety of electrically powered industrial trucks. IEC 62282-4-101. 2014. [withdrawn]

Gaseous Hydrogen — Fuel system components for hydrogen fueled vehicles. ISO 19887. Under development.

-Aviation-

Liquid Hydrogen Storage for Aviation. SAE AS6679. 2019, 10 pgs. [Work in progress]

Gaseous Hydrogen Storage for Aviation. SAE AS7373. 2021. [work in progress]

Installation of Fuel Cell Systems in Large Civil Aircraft. ASE AS6585 (EUROCAE ED-245). 2017, 35 pgs.

Hydrogen Fuel Cells Aircraft Fuel Cell Safety Guidelines. SAE AIR6464 (EUROCAE WG80/AE-7AFC, ED-219?) 2020, 42 pgs. Aircraft auxiliary power systems.

New Specification for Design of Fuel Cells for Use in Unmanned Aerial Vehicles. ASTM WK60937. Under development.

-Cylinders-

Standard for Safe Handling of Compressed Gases in Containers. CGA P-1. 2015, 21 pgs.

Standard for Visual Inspection of Steel Compressed Gas Cylinders. CGA C-6. 2019, 26 pgs.

Gas cylinders — Refillable permanently mounted composite tubes for transportation. ISO/TS 17519. 2019, 51 pgs.

Compressed hydrogen gas vehicle fuel containers. CSA/ANSI HGV 2. 2019.

Pressure Relief Device Standards-Part 1-Cylinders for Compressed Gases. CGA S-1.1. 2019, 44 pgs.

Liquid hydrogen — Land vehicle fuel tanks. ISO 13985. 2006, 17 pgs.

Thermally activated pressure relief devices for compressed hydrogen vehicle fuel containers. CSA ANSI HPRD 1. 2018,

Gaseous hydrogen — Land vehicle fuel containers. ISO 19881. 2018, 53 pgs.

Gaseous hydrogen — Thermally activated pressure relief devices for compressed hydrogen vehicle fuel containers. ISO 19882. 2018,

Compressed hydrogen powered industrial truck on-board fuel storage and handling components. CSA HPIT 1. 2018.

Compressed Gases and Cryogenic Fluids Code. NFPA 55. 2020.

Transportable gas storage devices — Hydrogen absorbed in reversible metal hydride. ISO 16111. 2018, 43 pgs.

Liquid hydrogen — Land vehicle fuel tanks. ISO 13985. 2006, 17 pgs.

Gas cylinders — Compatibility of cylinder and valve materials with gas contents — Part 1: Metallic materials. ISO 11114-1. 2020, 48 PGS.

Transportable gas cylinders — Compatibility of cylinder and valve materials with gas contents — Part 4: Test methods for selecting steels resistant to hydrogen embrittlement. ISO 11114-1. 2017, 18 pgs.

Hydrogen Cylinders and Transport Vessels. IGC Doc. 100/03/E (TN 26/81). 2003, 42 pgs.

-Stationary Hydrogen-

Hydrogen Technologies Code. NFPA 2. 2020.

RR715 – Installation permitting guidance for hydrogen and fuel cell stationary applications: UK version. Health and Safety Executive. 2009, 74 pgs.

Standard for Hydrogen Venting Systems. CGA G-5.5. 2021, 17 pgs.

-Permitting and Inspections-

Introduction to Hydrogen for Code Officials. DOE course.

Permitting Hydrogen Fueling Stations. NREL Learning videos. 2016, 36 mins.

Regulator’s Guide to Permitting Hydrogen Technologies. PNNL 14518, 2004, 13 pgs.

Module 1 – Permitting Stationary Fuel Cell Installations. PNNL-14518. 2004, 42 pgs.

Module 2 – Permitting Hydrogen Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities. PNNL-14518. 2004, 57 pgs.

Guide to Permitting Hydrogen Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities. NREL/TP-5400-64042. 2016, 62 pgs.

Hydrogen Generators Using Fuel Processing Technologies — Part 1: Safety. ISO 16110. 2016, 75 pgs.

Regulations, Codes, and Standards (RCS) Template for California Hydrogen Dispensing Stations. NREL/TP-5600-56223. 2012, 30 pgs.

Hydrogen Station Permitting Guidebook. California Governor’s Office. 2020, 70 pgs.

Canadian Hydrogen Installation Code. CAN/BNQ-1784-000. 2007.

Installation Permitting Guidance for Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Stationary Applications (UK version). Health and Safety Executive. 2009, 74 pgs.

Refueling

Fuel Dispensing for Hydrogen Gas Powered Vehicles. CSA HGV-4. Sections 4.1 through 4.10.

Gaseous hydrogen land vehicle refueling connection devices. ISO 17268, 2020. 45 pgs.

Fueling Protocols for Light Duty Gaseous Hydrogen Surface Vehicles. SAE J2601. 2020, 292 pgs.

Hydrogen Surface Vehicle to Station Communications Hardware and Software. SAE J2799. 2019, 33 pgs.

Dispensing systems and components for fueling hydrogen powered industrial trucks. CSA HPIT 2. 2017.

International Fire Code. Chapter 23, Section 2309 – Hydrogen Motor Fuel-Dispensing and Generation Facilities. 2018.

Gaseous hydrogen — Fueling stations — Part 1: General requirements. ISO 19880-1. 2020, 173 pgs.

Gaseous hydrogen — Fueling stations — Part 3: Valves. ISO 19880-3. 2018, 38 pgs.

Gaseous hydrogen — Fueling stations — Part 5: Dispenser hoses and hose assemblies. ISO 19880-5. 2019, 27 pgs.

Gaseous hydrogen — Fueling stations — Part 6: Fittings. ISO 19880-6. Under development.

Outdoor Hydrogen Refuelling Points Dispensing Gaseous Hydrogen and Incorporating Filling Protocols. (British) BS EN 17127:2020. 19 pgs.

Gaseous Hydrogen Stations. IGC Doc 15/06/E. 2006. 34 pgs.

-Storage-

Pressure Relief Device Standards-Part 3-Stationary Storage Containers for Compressed Gases. CGA S-1.3. 2020, 67 pgs.

Gaseous hydrogen — Cylinders and tubes for stationary storage. ISO 19884. Under development.

-Liquid Hydrogen/Cryogenic-

Standard for Cryogenic Hydrogen Storage. CGA H-3. 2019,

Guideline for Safe Handling of Cryogenic and Refrigerated Liquids. CGA P-12. 2017, 25 pgs.

Liquid hydrogen — Land vehicle fueling system interface. ISO 13984. 1999, 13 pgs.

Compressed Gases and Cryogenic Fluids Code. NFPA 55. 2020.

OSHA Process Safety Management and EPA Risk Management Plan Guidance Document for Bulk Liquid Hydrogen Systems. CGA P-28. 2022, 65 pgs.

Cryogenic vessels — Static vacuum-insulated vessels — Part 1: Design, fabrication, inspection and tests. ISO 21009-1. 2013(R), 128 pgs.

Cryogenic vessels — Static vacuum insulated vessels — Part 2: Operational requirements. ISO 21009-2. 2015, 15 pgs.

Liquid hydrogen — Land vehicle fueling system interface. ISO 13984. 1999, 13 pgs.

Safety in Storage, Handling and Distribution of Liquid Hydrogen. EIGA Doc. 06/19. 2019, 23 pgs.

-Fuel Cells and Electrolyzers-

Standard for the Installation of Stationary Fuel Cell Power Systems. NFPA 853. 2020.

Hydrogen generators using water electrolysis — Industrial, commercial, and residential applications. ISO 22734. 2019, 48 pgs.

Fuel cell technologies – Part 2-100: Fuel cell modules – Safety. IEC 62282-2-100. 2020, 90 pgs.

Fuel cell technologies – Part 3-100: Stationary fuel cell power systems – Safety. IEC 62281-3-100. 2019, 166 pgs.

Fuel cell technologies – Part 5-100: Portable fuel cell power systems – Safety. IEC 62882-5-1002018, 121 pgs.

Fuel cell technologies – Part 6-100: Micro fuel cell power systems – Safety. IEC 62281-5-100. 202012, 797 pgs.

Hydrogen generators using fuel processing technologies — Part 1: Safety. ISO 16110=1. 2016(R), 75 pgs.

Safety of pressure swing adsorption systems for hydrogen separation and purification. ISO/TC 19883. 2017, 15 pgs.

A Fuel Cell Guide – Regulations, Codes and Standards for the Deployment of Fuel Cells. Telecommunications Industry Foundation TIF White Paper 003. 2018, 37 pgs.

-Buildings, Tunnels and Enclosed Spaces-

National Fuel Gas Code. NFPA 54/ANSI Z223. 2018.

Standard for Gaseous Hydrogen at Consumer Sites. NFPA 50A. 1999. See NFPA 55.

Standard for Liquified Hydrogen at Consumer Sites. NFPA 50B. See NFPA 55.

Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair Garages. NEC 30A. 2021

Hydrogen Piping and Pipelines. ASME b31.12. 2019, 280 pgs.

Standard for Hydrogen Piping Systems at User Locations. CGA G-5.4. 2019, 10 pgs.

Hydrogen Vent Systems. CGA G-5.5. 2021, 17 pgs.

Hydrogen Pipeline Systems. CGA 5.6. 2013, 74 pgs.

Boiler, pressure vessel, and pressure piping code. CSA B51. 2019, 213 pgs.

International Fuel Gas Code, Chapter 7 – Gaseous Hydrogen Systems. 2015.

Airport hydrogen fueling facility operations (ground support equipment). ISO/PAS 15594. 2004, 17 pgs. WITHDRAWN.

Standard for Purged and Pressurized Enclosures for Electrical Equipment. NEC 496. 2021.

Recommended Practice for the Classification of Flammable Liquids, Gases, or Vapors and of Hazardous (Classified) Locations for Electrical Installations in Chemical Process Areas. NEC 497. 2021.

Hydrogen detection apparatus — Stationary applications. ISO 26142. 2010, 27 pgs.

Standard on Explosion Protection by Deflagration Venting. NFPA 68. 2018.

Standard on Explosion Prevention Systems. NFPA 69. 2019.

U.S. Occupational Health and Safety (OSHA) Hydrogen. 29 CFR 1910.103.

Hydrogen Equipment Certification Guide. PNNL. 2017, 228 pgs.

Explosive atmospheres. Explosion prevention and protection. Basic concepts and methodology. EN 1127-1. 2019.

Distribution, Storage & Infrastructure

High Pressure Hydrogen Relief Devices: Accelerated Life Testing and Application Best Practices. NREL/TP-5400-67381. 2017, 33 pgs.

CNG & Hydrogen Tank Safety, R&D, and Testing. Powertech Labs. 2009, 34 pgs.

Hydrogen (Pipelines). PHMSA

Hydrogen Pipeline Systems. IGC Doc. 121/14. 2014, 84 pgs.

Qualified Individual for Liquefied Hydrogen. HSP. 2018, 4 pgs.

Communicating leakage risk in the hydrogen economy: Lessons already learned from geoenergy [underground] industries. Frontiers in Energy Research. 2022, 15 pgs.

Hydrogen Infrastructure Safety Technical Assessment and research Results Gap Analysis. DOT-T-06-01. 2006, 174 pgs.

Gas Cylinder Awareness Outline. University of Wisconsin – Milwaukee. 2016, 4 pgs.

Storemasta Gas Cylinder Storage – Compliance and Safety Requirements. (according to Australia AS 4332-204. 22 PGS.

Welded gaseous storage tanks and hydrogen. EIGA TB 42/22. 2022, 5 pgs.

Transportation

-Vehicles-

Guidelines for Use of Hydrogen Fuel in Commercial Vehicles. FMCSA-RRT-07-020. 2007, 94 pgs. Auxilliary power units.

Survey of Potential Safety Issues with Hydrogen-Powered Vehicle.  SAE 2006-01-0327,  13 pgs.

Recommended Practice for General Fuel Cell Vehicle Safety. SAE J2578. 2914, 35 pgs.

Recommended Practice for Electric, Fuel Cell and Hybrid Electric Vehicle Crash Integrity Testing. SAE J1766. 2014, 22 pgs.

Post-Crash Hydrogen Leakage Limits and Fire Safety Research. (NHTSA) DOT HS 811 816. 2013, 160 pgs.

Analysis of Published Hydrogen Vehicle Safety Research. (NHTSA) DOT HS 811 267. 2010, 267 pgs.

Failure Modes and Effects Analysis for Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles – Subtask 1. (NHTSA) DOT 811 303. 2009, 170 pgs.

Safety Issues with Hydrogen as a Vehicle Fuel. INEEL/EXT-99-00522. 1999, 78 pgs.

Safety of Mobile Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technology Applications. PNNL-29341. 2019, 26 pgs.

Guidelines for Use of Hydrogen Fuel in Commercial Vehicles. FMCSA-RRT-07-020. 2007, 94 pgs.

Current Availability and Feasibility of Mobile, Fast Fill Hydrogen Refueling Stations. Caltrans DRISI. 2019, 48 pgs.

Safety and Regulatory Structure for CNG, CNG-H2, H2 Vehicles and Fuels in China. (DOT/DOE) Jinyang Zheng, Zhejian University, Hangzhou. 2009, 47 pgs.

-Cylinders-

Standard for Safe Handling of Compressed Gases in Containers. CGA P-1. 2015, 21 pgs.

CNG and Hydrogen Vehicle Fuel Tank Failure Incidents, Testing, and Preventive Measures. Motor Vehicle Fire Research Institute. 2008, 15 pgs.

Localized Fire Protection Assessment for Vehicle Compressed Hydrogen Containers. (NHTSA) DOT 811 303. 2010, 32 pgs.

Compressed Hydrogen Cylinder Research and Testing In Accordance With FMVSS 304. (NHTSA) DOT 811 150. 2009, 46 pgs.

CNG & Hydrogen Tank Safety, R&D, and Testing. Powertech Labs. 2009, 34 pgs.

Cylinder Issues Associated with Alternative Fuels. DOT/FTA. 1999, 124 pgs.

Lessons Learned from Practical Field Experience with High Pressure Gaseous Fuels. Clean Vehicle Foundation. 2010, 40 pgs.

Natural Gas Vehicle Cylinder Safety, Training and Inspection Project. Clean Vehicle Education Foundation. 2009, 140 pgs.

Gas Cylinder Safety, Course 9518. Los Alamos National Lab. 2016, 114 pgs.

Properties for Composite Materials in Hydrogen Service. ASME STP-PT-017-2008. 56 pgs.

Guidelines for Gas Cylinder Safety. BOC Australia. 2012, 40 pgs.

Natural Gas Vehicle Cylinder Safety, Training and Inspection Report. DOE/NT426087-CVEF-09-1. 2009, 140 pgs.

CNG Fuel Systems Inspector Study Guide. Clean Vehicle Education Foundation. (DOE/NETL) DE-FC26-05NT42068. 2008, 53 pgs.

Best practices for defueling, decommissioning, and disposal of compressed hydrogen gas vehicle fuel containers. CSA SPE-2.1.3-2020.

Stationary Use

Equipment for Potentially Explosive Atmospheres (ATEX). EU Directive 2014/34/EC. 2014.

Recognizing and managing the risks from hydrogen in conventional and nuclear workplaces. HSE. 46 pgs.

The bulk storage of gaseous hydrogen at users’ premises. BCGA CP33. 2012

Accident Analysis

Hydrogen Incident Reporting Database – Lessons Learned. PNNL.

Hydrogen Incidents and Accidents Database (HIAD) 2.0. European Hydrogen Safety Panel. Request from JRC-PTT-H2SAFETY@ec.europa.eu

Statistics, lessons learnt and recommendations from the analysis of the Hydrogen Incidents and Accidents Database (HIAD 2.0). FCU JU. 2021, 38 pgs.

Hydrogen Leak and Fire Detection – A Survey. NASA SP-5092. 1970, 92 pgs.

U.S. Chemical Safety Board (CSB) investigations.

Guide for Hydrogen Hazards Analysis on Components and Systems. NASA TP-WSTF-937 (NASA/TM-2003-212059). 2003, 40 pages.

Safety and Security Analysis: Investigative Report by NASA on Proposed EPA Hydrogen-Powered Vehicle Fueling Station. EPA420-R-04-16. 2004, 34 pages.

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission “Information Notices Hydrogen”.

Pipeline Failure Investigative Reports. PHMSA.

Failure Modes and Effects Analysis for Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles. DOT HS 811-075. 2009, 19 pgs.

Oxyhydrogen

Hydrogen and oxygen flames generated from electrolysis of water – Safetydevices. BCGA SA2. 2019, 2 pgs.

Reading

Air Products Safetygrams.

Hydrogen. CGA G-5. 2017, 15 pgs.

Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Safety Report. Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Energy Association. Online bi-monthly.

Hydrogen Technologies Code. NFPA 2. 2020. ~200 pgs.

Basic Considerations for the Safety of Hydrogen Systems. ISO/TR 15916. 2015. 62 pgs.

Guide to Safety of Hydrogen and Hydrogen Systems.  ANSI/AIAA G-095A-2017. 2017.

Safe Use of Hydrogen and Hydrogen Systems. NASA 20070018005. 2007, 298 pgs.

International Journal of Hydrogen Energy “Hydrogen Safety” search. International Hydrogen Energy Association since 1976.

Hindenburg: Exploring the Truth.  Addison Bain, 251 pages, 2014. 

HySafe Biennial Report On Hydrogen Safety.  331 pages, 2007.

Safety and Security Analysis: Investigative Report by NASA on Proposed EPA Hydrogen-Powered Vehicle Refueling Station.  EPA420-R-04-016, 25 pages, 2004.

Fundamentals of Hydrogen Safety Engineering I. Vladimir Molkov. 216 pgs. Online.

British Compressed Gas Association. Many downloadable publications, Codes of Practice.

Gaseous Hydrogen Stations. EIGA Doc. 15/96E. 2006, 34 pgs.

Property Loss Prevention Data Sheet [Hydrogen]. FM Global 7-91. 2021, 21 pgs. Register to download.

NASA Glenn Safety Manual, Chapter 6: Hydrogen. Glenn Research Center GLP-QS-8715.1.6. 2019, 83 pgs.

Analysis of Published Hydrogen Vehicle Safety Research. DOT HS: 811 267. 2010, 322 pgs.

Hydrogen Safety Checklist. HSP. 3 pgs.

Evolution in Hydrogen Safety Activities, Regulations, and Standards in China Over the Last Decade. Institute of Process Equipment, et al. ~2012, 20 pgs.

Hydrogen: Applications and Safety Considerations. MATGAS. 2015, 200 pgs.

Safety Issues Surrounding Hydrogen as an Energy Storage Vector. Kiwa Gastec. 2015, 96 pgs.

International Conference on Hydrogen Safety archived papers, 2005 to present.

Safety Planning for Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Projects. PNNL-25279-1. 2107, 28 pgs.

Principles of Hydrogen Safety [Explosion Dynamics and Hydrogen Safety]. Arief Dahoe. 2009, 19 pgs.

Cryogenic Engineering, 2nd. edit. Thomas Flynn. 2020, 912 pgs.

Oxygen System Safety. Swagelok MS-06-13, R4. 2017, 4 pgs.

Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles in Tunnels. SAND2020-4507 R, 2020, 66 pgs.

University of Surrey Fire and Explosion Modelling Group hydrogen safety publications.

Further Research

Research Priority Workshop on Hydrogen Safety. EUR 29146 EN, JRC111028. 2016, 94 pgs.

International Association for Hydrogen Safety – Research Priorities Workshop, September 2018, UK. HSE RR 1159. 2018, 78 pgs.

Glossary and Acronyms

AFAC – Australian Fire Authorities Council

AHA – American Hydrogen Association

AIAA – American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

AIChE – American Institute of Chemical Engineers

ANSI – American National Standards Institute

ASME – American Society of Mechanical Engineers

ASTM – American Society for Testing and Materials

ATEX – ATmospheres EXplosible

BCGA – British Compressed Gas Association

BLEVE – Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosion

Caltrans – California Department of Transportation

CCAP – (China) Certification Center for Automotive Products

CCC – China Compulsory Certification (CCC mark)

CE – Conformite Europeenne

CFCP – California Fuel Cell Partnership

CGA — Compressed Gas Association

CNG – Compressed natural gas

CSA – Canadian Standards Association

CSB – U.S. Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board

DDT – Deflagration to Detonation Transition

Deflagration – Subsonic (~1 meter/second) flame front propagates through mixture of fuel and oxidizer. e.g. Internal combustion engine, gunpowder.

Detonation – Supersonic (~1 kilometer/second) flame front accelerates through a fuel/oxidizer mixture producing a destructive shock wave. e.g. Engine knock, explosive devices.

DOE – U.S. Department of Energy

DOT – U.S. Department of Transportation

DRISI – Caltrans Division of Research, Innovation and System Information

EERE – U.S. DOE Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

EPA – U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

EU – European Union

FCEV – Fuel cell electric vehicle

FMVSS – U.S. Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards

GB – Guobiao (Chinese national) Standards

GTR – United Nations Global Technical Regulations

HSE – U.K. Health and Safety Executive

ICE – Internal combustion engine

ICHS – International Conference on Hydrogen Safety

IDLH – Immediate Danger to Life and Health

IEC – International Electrotechnical Commission

IEEE – Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers

IFGC – International Fuel Gas Code

IHFCA – International Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Association (China)

IJHE – International Journal of Hydrogen Energy

IMO – International Maritime Organization.

IPHE – International Partnership for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells in the Economy

ISO – International Standards Organization

JRC – European Commission Joint Research Centre

KHK – Koatsu-gas Hoan Kyokai. High Pressure Gas Safety Institute of Japan.

LH2 – Liquified hydrogen

MSDS – Material Safety Data Sheet

NASA – U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NBS – U.S. National Bureau of Standards. Renamed National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in 1988.

NCAP – New Car Assessment Program

NFPA – National Fire Protection Association

NGVI – Natural Gas Vehicle Institute

NHTSA – U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration

NIST – National Institute of Standards and Technology

NTSB – U.S. National Transportation Safety Board

OSHA – Occupational Safety and Health Administration

PHMSA – U.S. Pipeline and Hazardous Material Safety Administration

PNNL – U.S. Pacific Northwest National Lab

PSI – Pounds per square inch

R&D – Research and Development

SAE – Society of Automotive Engineers

STP – Standard temperature and pressure

TIA – Telecommunications Industrial Association

TUV – Technischer Uberwachungverein [Technical Control Board}

UL – Underwriters Laboratory

USCSB – U.S. Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board